Antagonism of the vip signaling pathway

ABSTRACT

The disclosure relates to inhibition of the VIP signaling pathway. In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treating or preventing a viral infection comprising administering a VIP antagonist to a subject in need thereof.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This invention was made with government support under GrantR01CA074364-04A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.61/438,707, filed on Feb. 2, 2011 and U.S. Patent Application No.61/467,714, filed on Mar. 25, 2011, which applications are herebyincorporated by this reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a herpes viral genus of the Herpesviruses groupthought to infect between 50% and 80% of adults in the United States.Herpesviruses share a characteristic ability to remain dormant withinthe body over long periods. CMV infections typically become moreaggressive in patients with a depressed immune system. Patients whoreceive allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (aBMT) often suffer froma CMV infection due to the immunocompromising effects of treatment.Thus, there is a need to identify methods that manage CMV infections.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is an endogenous polypeptide thatmodulates both innate and adaptive immunities. The administration of VIPdelays the onset, decreases the frequency, and reduces the severity ofdisease in various experimental models of autoimmune disease such assepsis, collagen-induced arthritis, Crohn's disease, type-I diabetes,multiple sclerosis, pancreatitis, keratitis, and uveoretinitis. SeeGonzalez-Rey, TRENDS in Molecular Medicine (2007) 13(6):241-251. It hasbeen reported that VIP interacts with the external envelope glycoprotein(gp120) of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). See Redwine et al.,Clin Immunol (1999) 93(2):124-31 and Peruzzi et al., AIDS Res HumRetroviruses (2000) 16(11):1067-73. VIP is also thought to activatehuman CMV major immediate-early (MIE) gene expression initiating viralreactivation during latency. See Yuan et al., J Virology (2009) 83(13):6391-6403.

Emilie et al., J Neuroimmunol., 2011, provide that vasoactive intestinalpeptide receptor 1 is downregulated during expansion of antigen-specificCD8 T cells following primary and secondary Listeria monocytogenesinfections. References cited herein are not an admission of prior art.

SUMMARY

This disclosure relates to antagonism of the VIP signaling pathway. Incertain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treating orpreventing a viral infection comprising administering a VIP antagonistto a subject at risk of, exhibiting symptoms of, or diagnosed with aviral infection. In certain embodiments, the subject is immunecompromised or the subject is an allogeneic bone marrow transplant donoror recipient. In typical embodiments, the subject is an organ transplantrecipient, undergoing hemodialysis, diagnosed with cancer, receiving animmunosuppressive drug, and/or diagnosed with an HIV-infection. Incertain embodiments, the disclosure relates to preventing a viralinfection in an immunocompromised subject at risk of infection byadministering a VIP antagonist and optionally one or more antiviralagents.

In some embodiments, the disclosure relates to the use of a VIPantagonist in the production of an anti-viral medicament for thetreatment of a viral infection. In some embodiments, the subject isdiagnosed with a chronic viral infection. In certain embodiments, thesubject undergoes serological monitoring. In some embodiments, theadministration is under conditions such that the viral infection is nolonger detected. In some embodiments, the subject is diagnosed with aRNA virus, DNA virus, or retroviruses. In some embodiments, the subjectis diagnosed with a virus that is double stranded DNA virus, sensesingle stranded DNA virus, double stranded RNA virus, sense singlestranded RNA virus, antisense single stranded RNA virus, sense singlestranded RNA retrovirus or a double stranded DNA retrovirus. In someembodiments, the subject is diagnosed to have a rotavirus, an influenzavirus, a herpes virus, a hepatitis virus, or a lentivirus. In someembodiments, titer of the virus in the subject is reduced after thetreatment as compared to pre-treatment.

In some embodiments, the subject is diagnosed with influenza A virusincluding subtype H1N1, influenza B virus, influenza C virus, rotavirusA, rotavirus B, rotavirus C, rotavirus D, rotavirus E, SARS coronavirus,human adenovirus types (HAdV-1 to 55), human papillomavirus (HPV) Types16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, parvovirus B19,molluscum contagiosum virus, JC virus (JCV), BK virus, Merkel cellpolyomavirus, coxsackie A virus, norovirus, Rubella virus, lymphocyticchoriomeningitis virus (LCMV), yellow fever virus, measles virus, mumpsvirus, respiratory syncytial virus, rinderpest virus, Californiaencephalitis virus, hantavirus, rabies virus, ebola virus, marburgvirus, herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2),varicella zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus(CMV), herpes lymphotropic virus, roseolovirus, Kaposi'ssarcoma-associated herpesvirus, hepatitis A (HAV), hepatitis B (HBV),hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis D (HDV), hepatitis E (HEV), humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV), The Human T-lymphotropic virus Type I(HTLV-1), Friend spleen focus-forming virus (SFFV) or XenotropicMuLV-Related Virus (XMRV).

In certain embodiments, the subject is a mammal, typically a human.

In certain embodiments, the VIP antagonist is a peptide or peptideanalog or fragment of VIP, or VIP fragment or analog containing one ormore D-amino acids, or chimera of VIP, such as VIP(6-28);VIP(10-28);[LyS(1), Pro(2,5), Arg(3,4), Tyr(6)]-VIP; [D-p-Cl-Phe(6),Leu(17)1-VIP; [Acetyl-His(1), D-Phe(2), Lys(15), Arg(16),Leu(27)]-VIP(1-7)/GRF(8-27)-NH2; [Myristoyl-His(1), Lys(12,27,28),Gly(29,30), Thr(31)]-VIP-NH2; [Acetyl-His(1),D-Phe(2),Lys(15),Arg(16),Leu(17)]-VIP; neurotensin(6-11)VIP(7-28);[Acetyl-His(1), D-Phe(2), Lys(15), Leu(17)]VIP(3-7)/GRF(8-27);[Acetyl-His(1), D-Phe(2), Lys(15), Arg(16)]VIP(3-7)/GHF(8-27)-NH2;[Acetyl-Tyr(1), D-Phe(2)]-GRF(1-29)-NH2; [N-stearyl,norleucine17]VIPhybrid; Leu-Met-Tyr-Pro-Thr-Tyr-Leu-Lys; [D-Phe2]VIP;PACAP(6-27); and PACAP(6-38). In certain embodiments, the VIP antagonistis an VIP antibody or antibody fragment with an epitope to VIP or a VIPreceptor. In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates topharmaceutical compositions comprising a VIP antibody or antibodyfragment and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

In some embodiments, the disclosure relates to treating or preventing aviral infection by administering a VIP antagonist in combination with asecond antiviral agent. In further embodiments, the subject isco-administered with abacavir, acyclovir, acyclovir, adefovir,amantadine, amprenavir, ampligen, arbidol, atazanavir, atripla,boceprevir, cidofovir, combivir, darunavir, delavirdine, didanosine,docosanol, edoxudine, efavirenz, emtricitabine, enfuvirtide, entecavir,famciclovir, fomivirsen, fosamprenavir, foscarnet, fosfonet,ganciclovir, ibacitabine, imunovir, idoxuridine, imiquimod, indinavir,inosine, interferon type III, interferon type II, interferon type I,lamivudine, lopinavir, loviride, maraviroc, moroxydine, methisazone,nelfinavir, nevirapine, nexavir, oseltamivir (Tamiflu), peginterferonalfa-2a, penciclovir, peramivir, pleconaril, podophyllotoxin ,raltegravir, ribavirin, rimantadine, ritonavir, pyramidine, saquinavir,stavudine, tenofovir, tenofovir disoproxil, tipranavir, trifluridine,trizivir, tromantadine, truvada, valaciclovir (Valtrex), valganciclovir,vicriviroc, vidarabine, viramidine zalcitabine, zanamivir (Relenza),and/or zidovudine. In certain embodiments, the subject is administered apharmaceutical composition comprising a VIP antagonist and a secondantiviral agent.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to treating a subjectwith a viral infection after infection by administering a VIP antagonistand an immunoglobulin.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to treating or preventinga viral infection by administering a VIP antagonist and a viral vaccineor in the absence of a viral vaccine.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to enhancing the immuneresponse to a vaccine comprising administering a VIP antagonist to asubject in need thereof Typically, the vaccine is selected from thegroup of vaccines consisting of herpes zoster vaccine, smallpox vaccine,polio vaccine, pertussis vaccine, influenza vaccine, diphtheria vaccine,tetanus vaccine, meningococcus vaccine, influenza A vaccine includingsubtype H1N1 vaccine, influenza B vaccine, influenza C vaccine,rotavirus A vaccine, rotavirus B vaccine, rotavirus C vaccine, rotavirusD vaccine, rotavirus E vaccine, SARS coronavirus vaccine, humanadenovirus types (HAdV-1 to 55) vaccine, human papillomavirus (HPV)vaccine, parvovirus B19 vaccine, molluscum contagiosum vaccine, JCvaccine, BK vaccine, Merkel cell polyomavirus vaccine, coxsackie Avaccine, norovirus vaccine, Rubella vaccine, lymphocyticchoriomeningitis vaccine, yellow fever vaccine, measles vaccine, mumpsvaccine, respiratory syncytial vaccine, rinderpest vaccine, Californiaencephalitis vaccine, hantavirus vaccine, rabies vaccine, ebola vaccine,marburg vaccine, herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) vaccine, herpes simplexvirus-2 (HSV-2) vaccine, varicella zoster vaccine, Epstein-Barr virus(EBV) vaccine, cytomegalovirus (CMV) vaccine, herpes lymphotropicvaccine, roseolovirus vaccine, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirusvaccine, hepatitis A (HAV) vaccine, hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine, hepatitisC (HCV) vaccine, hepatitis D (HDV) vaccine, hepatitis E (HEV) vaccine,human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine, The Human T-lymphotropicvirus Type I (HTLV-1) vaccine, Friend spleen focus-forming virus (SFFV)vaccine, and Xenotropic MuLV-Related Virus (XMRV) vaccine. In certainembodiments, the vaccine for a subject diagnosed with a chronic viralinfection.

In certain embodiments, the vaccine comprises a protein or peptide,carbohydrate, sugar, polysaccharide, or nucleic acid. Typically thevaccine is an attenuated replication competent virus or an inactivatedvirus. In certain embodiments, the vaccine comprises a live or a killedor inactivated prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of enhancingthe immune response to a cell therapy comprising administering a VIPantagonist to a subject in combination with a cell. In certainembodiments, the subject is diagnosed with leukemia or lymphoma. Incertain embodiments, the cell is a blood cell, bone marrow cell,leukocyte, T-cell, natural killer cell, a hematopoietic stem cell, aG-CSF mobilized or non-mobilized blood mononuclear cell.

In certain embodiments the cell is selected from the group consisting ofautologous T-cells, allogeneic cells from a HLA matched donor, orallogeneic cells from a HLA mis-matched donor. In certain embodiments,the cell is a bone marrow cell. In certain embodiments, the cell is ablood mononuclear cell comprising/expressing granulocytecolony-stimulating factor. The cell therapy may be conducted withnon-mobilized blood mononuclear cells.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows data suggesting mice lacking VIP had lower levels of virusin the liver following mCMV infection. VIP-KO and WT mice were infected(day 0) with low dose 5×10⁴ PFU mCMV. Livers were collected, weighed,and lysates prepared at days 3, 7, 10, 14 and 17 days post-mCMVinfection. Day 0 control livers were from uninfected mice. Liver viralload was measured by plaque assay of a defined quantity of liver lysateon 3T3 cell monolayers, and the number of pfu/liver calculated. ***Signifies p<0.001, denoting a significant difference between VIP-KO andWT mice.

FIG. 2 shows data suggesting mice lacking VIP had better survival andgreater expansion of blood T-cells following mCMV infection. VIP-KO andWT mice were infected (day 0) with low dose 5×10⁴ PFU or high dose 1×10⁵PFU mCMV. Survival was recorded every day and body weight was recordedtwice weekly. Peripheral blood and spleen were collected baseline, priorto mCMV infection, and 3, 7, 10, 14 and 17 days post- infection. Bloodcells and splenocytes were stained with fluorescently conjugatedmonoclonal antibodies to CD45.2, CD3, CD4, and CD8 and analyzed by flowcytometry, and absolute numbers of cells per mL blood or per spleen werecalculated. A and B. Survival and body weight change of WT and VIP-KOmice that received graded doses of 5×10⁴, or 1×10⁵ PFU mCMV. C and D:Total numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells in blood following low dose mCMVinfection. E and F: Total numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells in the spleenfollowing low dose mCMV infection. * Signifies p<0.05, ** signifiesp<0.01, and *** signifies p<0.001, denoting a significant differencebetween VIP-KO and WT mice.

FIG. 3 shows data suggesting mice lacking VIP had larger increases ofantigen-specific T-cells following mCMV infection. VIP-KO and WT micewere infected (day 0) with low dose 5×104 PFU or high dose 1×10⁵ PFUmCMV. Peripheral blood and spleen were collected at baseline, prior toinfection and 3, 7, 10, 14 and 17 days post-mCMV infection. Blood cellsand splenocytes were stained with fluorescently conjugated monoclonalantibodies to CD45.2, CD3, CD4, CD8 and mCMV M45-peptide specific MHCclass I tetramer reagents, analyzed by flow cytometry, and absolutenumbers of cells per mL blood and per spleen were calculated. NK cellkilling activity were measured by Cr51 releasing assay using YAC-1pulsed Cr51. A. Percentages of CD8⁺ T-cells in blood and spleen stainedwith the mCMV-peptide MHC class I MHC tetramer following low-dose mCMVinfection. B. Absolute numbers of mCMV-peptide MHC class I MHC tetramer⁺CD8⁺ T-cells/mL in blood following low-dose mCMV infection. C. Absolutenumbers of mCMV-peptide MHC class I MHC tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells in thespleen following low-dose mCMV infection. D. NK cells mediated cytolyticactivity. ** Signifies p<0.01 and *** signifies p<0.001, denoting asignificant difference between VIP-KO and wild-type mice.

FIG. 4 shows data suggesting VIP-KO mice had increased cytolyticactivity against M45 peptide-pulsed targets following mCMV infection. Amixture of peptide-pulsed targets (CD45.1⁺ CD45.2⁺) and non-pulsedtargets (CD45.2⁻ CD45.1⁺) were adoptively transferred to VIP-KO and WTmice 9 days after infection with low-dose mCMV. Target cells wereharvested from the recipient spleens 16 hours after iv injection, andpeptide-pulsed targets and non-pulsed targets were differentiated byflow cytometry following staining for CD45 congenic markers. A. Arepresentative flow cytometry analysis plot of splenocytes fromrecipient mice showing mean percentages of peptide-pulsed target cellsand non-pulsed target cells B. Calculated mean specific cytolyticactivity.

FIG. 5 shows data suggesting radiation chimeras engrafted withhematopoietic cells from VIP-KO donors had enhanced primary andsecondary antigen specific cellular immune responses following Lm-mCMVvaccination and mCMV infection. Syngeneic bone marrow chimeric mice weregenerated by transplanting lethally irradiated H-2Kb recipients with3×10³ HSC, 5×10⁴ DC and 3×10⁵ T-cells from either VIP-KO or WT H-2Kbdonor mice. 59 days post-transplant, mice were vaccinated with 1×10⁶ CFULm-MCMV or PBS, and then 80 days post-transplant, mice were infectedwith low dose 5×10⁴ PFU mCMV. Blood samples were collected at day 59,62, 66, 80, 83, 87 and 101 post-transplantation and analyzed by flowcytometry for mCMV-peptide-MHC class I tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells. A. Micewere treated first with PBS then infected with mCMV. B. Primary andsecondary immune responses in mice following vaccination with Lm-MCMVand then infection with low-dose mCMV. *** Signifies p<0.001 comparingtetramer⁺ T-cell levels between mice transplanted with VIP-KOhematopoietic cells and WT hematopoietic cells.

FIG. 6 shows data suggesting the generation of antigen-specificanti-viral T-cells and Th1 polarization was increased in cultures of DCand T-cells from VIP-KO mice compared with cells from WT mice. DC andT-cells were isolated from spleens of VIP-KO and WT mice, and fromradiation chimeric mice that received homogeneous grafts from VIP-KO orWT (3×10³) HSC, (5×10⁴) DC and (1×10⁶) T-cells, and heterogeneous graftsfrom the combination of VIP-KO HSC and DC and WT T-cells 15 daysfollowing infection with 5×10⁴ PFU (low dose) mCMV. FACS-purified DCfrom these mice were incubated with 3 μM mCMV peptide for 30 minutes,washed, and then co-cultured with T-cells from the same groups. On day 3and day 7 of culture, antigen-specific T-cells were measured by FACSusing mCMV-peptide-MHC class I tetramer reagent. A and B: the absolutenumbers of mCMV-peptide-MHC class I tetramer⁺ cells per mL in culturesof cells from non-transplanted (A) and radiation chimeric mice (B). Day0 data were obtained using cells from non-infected mice. Culture mediafrom day 3 cultures of cells from radiation chimeric mice were assayedfor IL-10 (C) and IFN-γ (D) by ELISA. * Signifies p<0.05, ** p<0.01, ***p<0.001 comparing VIP-KO mice and WT groups. Means ±SE from pooledresults of 3 repeat experiments. The experiment was repeated 3 times.

FIG. 7 shows data suggesting higher levels of CD80 and MHC class IIexpression on DC and lower levels of PD-1 and PD-1 expression on CD8⁺T-cells and DC from VIP-KO mice following mCMV infection. Splenocyteswere isolated from VIP-KO and WT mice at baseline and 3, 10 and 17 daysafter infection with 5×10⁴ PFU mCMV. Expression patterns of CD80 (A),MHC-II (B) and PD-L1 (C) on conventional DC (cDC, lineage⁻, CD11chi,B220⁻) and plasmacytoid DC (pDC, lineage⁻, CD11clo, B220⁺) and thepercentages of CD8⁺ T-cells expressing PD-1 (D) were analyzed by flowcytometry. Dashed lines represent the staining profile using aisotype-matched control antibody; filled lines represent specificstaining

FIG. 8 shows data on the survival of Balb/c mice after i.p. injectionwith LD50 dose of mCMV in combination with 8 daily subcutaneous doses ofVIP antagonist. Control mice received injections of PBS.

FIG. 9 shows data suggesting that B6 mice treated with VIP antagonisthave larger numbers of anti-viral T-cells following mCMV infection.

DETAILED DISCUSSION

It has been discovered that interference with VIP-signaling enhancesimmune responses. The role of physiological levels of VIP on immuneresponses to murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) was tested using VIP-knockout(VIP-KO) mice and radiation chimeras engrafted with syngenic VIP-KOhematopoietic cells. VIP-KO mice had less weight loss and bettersurvival following mCMV infection compared with wild-type littermates(WT). MCMV-infected VIP-KO mice had lower viral loads, faster clearanceof virus, with increased numbers of IFN-γ⁺ NK and NKT cells, andenhanced cytolytic activity of NK cells. Adaptive anti-viral cellularimmunity was increased in mCMV-infected VIP-KO mice compared with WTmice, with more Th1/Tc1 polarized T-cells, fewer IL-10⁺ T-cells, andmore CMV-peptide-MHC class I-tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells. MCMV-immune VIP-KOmice had enhanced ability to clear mCMV-peptide pulsed target cells invivo Enhanced anti-viral immunity was also seen in WT transplantrecipients engrafted with VIP-KO hematopoietic cells, indicating thatVIP synthesized by neuronal cells did not suppress immune responses.Following mCMV infection there was a marked up-regulation of MHC classII and CD80 co-stimulatory molecule expression on DC from VIP-KO micecompared with DC from WT mice, while PD-1 and PD-L1 expression wereup-regulated in activated CD8⁺ T-cells and DC, respectively, in WT micebut not in VIP-KO mice. Since the absence of VIP in immune cellsincreased innate and adaptive anti-viral immunity by alteringco-stimulatory and co-inhibitory pathways, selective targeting ofVIP-signaling represents an attractive therapeutic target to enhanceanti-viral immunity

Absence of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Expression in HematopoieticCells Enhances Th1 Polarization and Anti-Viral Immunity in Mice

The immuno-regulatory effect of VIP in immune responses to mCMVinfection we explored. Data obtained using VIP-KO mice suggests that theabsence of physiological levels of VIP in hematopoietic cells leads tostriking enhancement of innate and adaptive anti-viral cellular immuneresponses. VIP-KO mice had less mortality and faster viral clearancecompared with WT mice. The increased expansion of mCMV-peptide-MHC classI tetramer⁺ T-cells and increased cytolytic activity of NK cells seen inVIP-KO mice are likely responsible for their greater resistance to mCMVinfection. While we used the M45 epitope peptide to measure mCMVspecific T-cells, and T-cells recognizing this epitope have been shownto be relative ineffective in clearing virus infected cells due tom152/gp40-mediated immune interference, the enhanced killing of M45epitope-containing peptide-pulsed-target cells supports the contributionof M45 reactive T-cells to functional anti-viral cytotoxic activity invivo.

To clarify the effect of various physiological sources of VIP(hematopoietic versus neuronal), C57BL/6 radiation chimeras engraftedwith syngeneic VIP-KO or WT hematopoietic cells were used followingmyeloablative radiation. Recipients of VIP-KO hematopoietic graftsshowed accelerated kinetics of cellular immune responses to primary mCMVinfection and LmCMV vaccination as well as greater amnestic responsesfollowing Lm-mCMV vaccination and mCMV infection compared withrecipients of wild-type grafts. These data indicate that VIP produced byhematopoietic cells has a dominant negative effect on anti-viralcellular immune responses, and that VIP synthesis by non-hematopoieticneuronal cells does not significantly affect anti-viral immune responsesin this system.

Immune cells in VIP-KO mice had more Th1 polarization, less Th2polarization, and higher MHC-II expression than those of WT micefollowing mCMV infection, consistent with the idea that VIP is anegative regulator of Th1 immune responses. An in vitro model of T-cellsco-cultured with mCMV-peptide pulsed DC recapitulated the in vivoimmunology of VIP KO mice. Co-cultures of DC and T-cells from VIP-KOmice had higher levels of IFN-γ⁺ CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells and moreantigen-specific anti-viral CD8⁺ T cells compared with cultures of WT DCand WT T-cells. Conditioned media from cultures of WT T-cells and WT DChad higher levels of IL-10, and lower levels of IFN-γ, compared withculture media from VIP-KO T-cells VIP-KO DC, consistent with otherreports. Heterogeneous co-cultures of VIP-KO DC and WT T-cells had thesame (lower) numbers of antigen-specific anti-viral CD8⁺ T cells ascultures of WT DC and WT T-cells, confirming that T-cells making VIP aresufficient to polarize Th2 immunity and suppress Th1 immunity, and thatVIP made by T-cells is a dominant negative regulator of anti-viralimmune responses.

Although it is not intended that certain embodiments be limited by anyparticular mechanism, it is believed that the mechanisms for theenhanced antiviral cellular immunity and greater Th1/TC1 immunepolarization seen in VIP-KO mice following mCMV infection appears to bedue to a profound shift in the pattern of co-stimulatory andco-inhibitory molecule expression on DC and CD8⁺ T-cells. The higherlevels of MHC-II and CD80 on cultured VIP-KO DC compared with WT DC areconsistent with previous reports that mature DC activate Th1 immuneresponses and that supra-physiological levels of VIP induces tolerogenicDC that express lower levels of co-stimulatory molecules. Anotherpossible mechanism is that VIP-signaling interferes with the ability ofthe mCMV protein m138 to target CD80 expression on DC.

An important finding is that VIP modulates the expression of the PD-1and PD-L1 co-inhibitory molecules that regulate immune polarization andsurvival of T-cells. PD-L1-PD-1 interactions are known to regulate theinitial priming of naive T cells by mCMV-infected APC, and are distinctfrom the role that PD-1 signaling plays in T cell “exhaustion” describedfor several persistent/ chronic viral infections in humans and mice,including human CMV. Following viral infection, up-regulation of thePD-L1/L2-PD-1 pathway has been associated with immunosuppression due tocell-cycle arrest, and death of T-cells, either through the directengagement of a death pathway or indirectly by down-regulating survivalsignals and growth factors. PD-L1/L2 expression on DC is associated withreduced expression of CD40, CD80, and CD86 and increased IL-10production. DC from mice transplanted with VIP-KO cells had dramaticallyreduced PD-L1 expression on DC and PD-1 expression on activated memoryCD8⁺ T-cells that were associated with increased quantitative andqualitative antiviral T cell responses following mCMV infection.Physiological levels of VIP contribute to the up-regulation ofPD-L1/PD-1 expression seen in WT mice following mCMV infection. The datasuggests that induction of VIP is part of the active suppression ofadaptive immune responses that occurs following mCMV infection.

Vaccines

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to vaccine compositionscomprising VIP and methods of administering VIP antagonist incombination with a vaccine. A vaccine typically contains an antigen froma pathogen, and is often presented to the immune system from weakened orkilled forms of the microbe or its toxins. The antigen stimulates theimmune system. Vaccines may be prophylactic (e.g. to prevent orameliorate the effects of a future infection by any pathogen), ortherapeutic by being administered after infection or diagnosis of thedisease.

Some vaccines contain killed, but previously virulent, micro-organismsthat have been destroyed with chemicals or heat. The influenza vaccine,cholera vaccine, bubonic plague vaccine, polio vaccine, hepatitis Avaccine, and rabies vaccine are examples of a killed vaccine that arecontemplated by this disclosure.

Some vaccines contain live, attenuated microorganisms. Typically theseare live viruses that have been cultivated under conditions that disablecertain virulent properties, or which use closely-related but lessdangerous organisms to produce a broad immune response; however, someare bacterial in nature.

In certain embodiments, the vaccine is a protein subunit. Rather thanintroducing an inactivated or attenuated micro-organism to an immunesystem, a fragment of it can be used to create an immune response.Examples include the subunit vaccine against Hepatitis B virus that iscomposed of only the surface proteins of the virus, the virus-likeparticle (VLP) vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV) that iscomposed of the viral major capsid protein, and the hemagglutinin andneuraminidase subunits of the influenza virus.

In certain embodiments, the vaccine comprises a polysaccharide. Certainbacteria have polysaccharide outer coats that are typically immunogenic.By linking these polysaccharides to proteins (e.g. toxins), the immunesystem can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were aprotein antigen.

Toxoid vaccines are made from inactivated toxic compounds. Examples oftoxoid-based vaccines include diphtheria and tetanus toxoid. In certainembodiments, the VIP antagonist is administered in combination with DPT.DPT (also DTP and DTwP) refers to a class of combination vaccinesagainst three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis(whooping cough) and tetanus. The vaccine components include diphtheriaand tetanus toxoids, and killed whole cells of the organism that causespertussis (wP). DTaP (also known as Tdap,DTPa, and TDaP) refers tosimilar combination vaccines in which the pertussis component isacellular. Also contemplated is the DT or TD vaccine, which lacks thepertussis component.

Other specific vaccines contemplated by the disclosure include theanthrax vaccine, e.g., culture filtrates of an avirulent,nonencapsulated strain known as V770-NP1-R, Bacille Calmette-Guérin(BCG), e.g., a strain of the attenuated live bovine tuberculosisbacillus, haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine, e.g., Hibpolysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccine, hepatitis A vaccine, e.g.,inactivated Hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B vaccine, e.g., hepatitis Bsurface antigen, human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, e.g.,non-infectious virus-like particles assembled from the L1 proteins ofHPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18, meningococcal vaccine, e.g., capsularpolysaccharide antigens of Neisseria meningitides serogroups A, C, Y,and W-135 strains individually conjugated to diphtheria toxoid protein.

Some cancers are caused by viruses, and traditional vaccines againstthose viruses, such as HPV vaccine and Hepatitis B vaccine, will preventthose cancers. It is contemplated that VIP antagonist can beadministered in combination with these vaccines to improve treatmentefficacy.

It is believe that cancer cells arise and are destroyed by the immunesystem, and that cancer forms when the immune system fails to destroythem. One approach to cancer vaccination is to separate proteins fromcancer cells and immunize cancer patients against those proteins,stimulating an immune reaction that kills the cancer cells. Cancervaccines are contemplated for the treatment of breast, lung, colon,skin, kidney, prostate, and other cancers. In certain embodiments, thedisclosure relates to treating cancers by administering VIP antagonistin combination with cancer antigens.

Nucleic acid vaccines, typically a DNA plasmid, are geneticallyengineered to encode and/or produce one or more antigens from apathogen. The nucleic acid is transplanted or infects host cells wherethe inner machinery of the cells expresses the proteins. Because theseproteins are recognized as foreign, when they are processed by the hostcells and displayed on their surface immune response is triggered.Cytotoxic T lymphocytes responses can also be enhanced by co-inoculationwith co-stimulatory molecules such as GM-CSF, B7-1, or B7-2. In certainembodiments, a VIP antagonist may be administered in combination withnucleic acid vaccines or other co-stimulatory molecules.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treating orpreventing cancer comprising administering a VIP antagonist incombination with a cancer vaccine such as antigen-presenting cellscomprising a cancer antigen. For example, a course of Sipuleucel-T(Provenge) treatment comprises the following steps: white blood cellsfrom a subject, primarily antigen-presenting cells (APCs), dendriticcells, are extracted in a leukapheresis procedure. The blood product isincubated with a fusion protein (PA2024) comprising the cancer antigenprostatic acid phosphatase (PAP), which is present in many prostatecancer cells, and an immune signaling factor granulocyte-macrophagecolony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) that helps the APCs to mature. Theactivated blood product (APC8015) is re-infused into the subject tocause an immune response against cancer cells carrying the PAP antigen.See e.g., Kantoff et al., N Engl J Med 2010, 363:411-422 herebyincorporated by reference. In certain embodiments, the disclosurerelates to methods of treating prostate cancer comprising administeringa VIP antagonist in combination with a peripheral-blood mononuclearcell, including antigen-presenting cells that have been activated with arecombinant protein comprising prostatic acid phosphatase andgreanulocyte colony-stimulating factor.

Immunotherapies

It is contemplated that VIP antagonist may be administered to subjectsbefore, during, or after a cell based immunotherapy including therecipient or donor. The immunotherapy may be performed in combinationswith chemotherapy and/or a radiation therapy. It is contemplated thatVIP antagonist may be used in combination with other immune stimulatorsincluding, but not limited to, CpG oligonucleotides, granulocyte colonystimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor,interferon alpha, pegylated interferon, interleukin-12, interleukin-2,and pegfilgrastim.

Certain cellular immunotherapies are effective for treating cancer suchas lymphocyte infusions or allogeneic bone marrow transplantations.Donor immune cells, particularly NK cells and T-cells, cells haveanti-cancer cytotoxic activity. VIP antagonism enhances cellular immuneresponses in vivo. VIP antagonism increases the cytotoxic activity ofantigen-specific T-cells and NK cells. VIP antagonism is predicted toincrease the anti-cancer activity of NK cells or antigen-specificT-cells. VIP antagonism in conjunction with cellular immunotherapy ispredicted to increase the efficacy of said therapy. It is believed thatthe absence of VIP does not increase the “off-target” graft versus hostdisease activity of donor lymphocytes in recipients of allogeneic bonemarrow transplantation. Thus, administration of VIP antagonists tosubjects with cancer receiving cellular therapies, e.g., donorlymphocyte infusions or allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, willincrease the anti-cancer activity of said therapy.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treatingcancer by performing a stem cell transplantation comprisingadministering a VIP antagonist to the subject in combination withtransplanting a multipotent hematopoietic stem cell derived from thesubject (self) or a donor. The stem cells may be collected fromperipheral blood such as cord blood or placenta-derived stem cells orfrom the bone marrow. To limit the risks of transplanted stem cellrejection or of severe graft-versus-host disease, the donor willtypically have the substantially human leukocyte antigens (HLA) as therecipient; however the donor may have mis-matches for certain antigens.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to lymphocyte infusionsafter a hematopoietic progenitor cell transplant to treat a hematologicmalignancy (e.g., cancer of the blood or bone marrow, such as leukemiaor lymphoma). A transplant recipient is typically infused withlymphocytes obtained in a leukapheresis procedure from the originalallogeneic stem cell (hematopoietic progenitor cell) donor.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to extraction oflymphocytes from the blood and expanding in vitro against tumorantigen(s) and optionally exposing the cells with an appropriatestimulatory cytokine and/or a VIP antagonist.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of enhancingtopical immunotherapies comprising administering a VIP antagonist incombination with providing an immune enhancement cream, such asimiquimod, comprising an interferon producing drug, that causes theactivation of T-cells.

In certain embodiments, it is contemplated that VIP antagonists can beused in combination with adoptive cell therapies. For example, T cellswith a naturally occurring reactivity to cancer can be found infiltratedin tumors of the subject. The tumor can be harvested, and thesetumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) can be expanded, or made moreeffective, in vitro using interleukin-2 (IL-2), anti-CD3 andallo-reactive feeders. These T cells can then be transferred back intothe subject along with administration of a VIP antagonist. Beforereinfusion, lymphodepletion of the recipient is typically done toeliminate regulatory T cells as well as normal endogenous lymphocytesthat compete with the transferred cells. It is also contemplated thatthe adoptive cell transfer of lymphocytes may be transduced with avector encoding T cell receptors (TCRs) that recognize a cancer antigen.

Terms

The terms “vasoactive intestinal peptide” and “VIP” refer to (SEQ IDNO:3) HSDAVFTDNYTRLRKQMAVKKYLNSILN unless the context suggestsotherwise. VIP is a multifunctional endogenous polypeptide thatmodulates both innate and adaptive immunity at multiple levels of immunecell differentiation and activation. There are two human isoforms of thepreproprotein: human isoform 1 (SEQ ID NO:1) 1 MDTRNKAQLL VLLTLLSVLFSQTSAWPLYR APSALRLGDR IPFEGANEPD QVSLKEDIDM 61 LQNALAENDT PYYDVSRNARHADGVFTSDF SKLLGQLSAK KYLESLMGKR VSSNISEDPV 121 PVKRHSDAVF TDNYTRLRKQMAVKKYLNSI LNGKRSSEGE SPDFPEELEK and human isoform 2 (SEQ ID NO:2) 1MDTRNKAQLL VLLTLLSVLF SQTSAWPLYR APSALRLGDR IPFEGANEPD QVSLKEDIDM 61LQNALAENDT PYYDVSRNAR HADGVFTSDF SKLLGQLSAK KYLESLMGKR VSNISEDPVP 121VKRHSDAVFT DNYTRLRKQM AVKKYLNSIL NGKRSSEGES PDFPEELEK.

VIP is typically secreted by a variety of cells such as neurons (in boththe central and peripheral nervous systems) B-cells, T-cells, andaccessory cells. VIP and the closely related neuropeptide pituitaryadenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) bind to three knownreceptors-VPAC1, VPAC2, and PAC1. It is believed that T-cells anddendritic cells (DC) express VPAC1 and VPAC2, but not PAC1. PAC1 ismainly expressed on neuron and endocrine cells in the brain andpituitary and adrenal glands, and in most forms selectively binds PACAP.

In adaptive immune responses, VIP polarizes CD4⁺ T-cells to animmunosuppressive Th2 response while suppressing the Th1 responses.T-cell activation and differentiation induce VPAC2 expression, whileVPAC1 is down-regulated following stimulation of human blood T-cellswith anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody plus PMA. VIP also acts on APC andregulates their function. Through the VPAC1 receptor, VIP leads to thedevelopment of bone marrow-derived tolerogenic DCs in vitro and in vivo.In a mouse model of bone marrow transplantation, DC that weredifferentiated in the presence of VIP, and then transplanted along withbone marrow cells and splenic T-cells induced the generation ofregulatory T-cells and protected mice from acute graft versus hostdisease (GvHD). Th2 polarization is achieved partly through VIPregulation of costimulatory signals on antigen presenting cells (APC)and inhibition of IL-1, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-12 production. VIPsuppresses expression of the pattern recognition receptors toll-likereceptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4 on APC and inhibits TLR3-signaling.Conversely, binding of ligands to TLR2, TLR4, and TLR7 down-regulateVPAC2 expression on APC.

The term “VIP antagonist” refers to any molecule that inhibits ordetracts from the ability of VIP to alter immune responses. VIPantagonists are known including VIP analogues, VIP fragments, growthhormone-releasing factor analogs and hybrid peptides. A number of VIPantagonists are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,565,424; 7,094,755;6,828,304, and are all hereby incorporated by reference. Some examplesof VIP antagonist include [Ac-Tyr1,D-Phe2]GRF 1-29, amide, i.e., (SEQ IDNO:4) YFDAIFTNSYRKVLGQLSARKLLQDIMSR (Modifications: Tyr-1=N-terminal Ac,Phe-2=D-Phe, Arg-29=C-terminal amide); VIP (6-28), i.e., (SEQ ID NO:5)FTDNYTRLRKQMAVKKYLNSILN (Modifications: Asn-23=C-terminal amide);[D-p-Cl-Phe6, Leu17]-VIP, i.e., (SEQ ID NO:6) HSDAVFTDNYTRLRKQLAVKKYLNSILN (Modifications: Phe-6=p-Cl-D-Phe, Asn-34=C-terminalamide); VIP-hyb also known as VlPhybrid, i.e., a hybrid peptide ofneurotensin and VIP consisting of an N-terminal (SEQ ID NO:7) KPRRPY,also designated neurotensin (6-11)] followed by the C-terminal 22 aminoacids of VIP, i.e., (SEQ ID NO:8) TDNYTRLRKQMAVKKYLNSILN, alsodesignated VIP (7-28); N-terminal Stearyl, Norleucine 17 VIPhyb, i.e.,(SEQ ID NO: 9) KPRRPYTDNYTRLRKQXAVKKYLNSILN, wherein St is Stearyl and Xis norleucine; Ac His1 [D-Phe(2), Lys(15), Arg(16),Leu(27)]-VIP(1-7)/GRF(8-27), i.e., (SEQ ID NO:10)HFDAVFTNSYRKVLKRLSARKLLQDIL, C-terminal amide; and pituitary adenylatecyclase-activating polypeptide, PACAP (6-38) C-terminal amide, i.e.,(SEQ ID NO:11) TDSYSRYRKQMAVKKYLAAVLGKRYKQRVKNK. It is contemplated thatany of these molecules may be modified with hydrocarbon or polyethyleneglycol groups in order to provide improve properties such as solubility,bioavailability, and/or biological degradation.

Antibodies

The disclosure also includes relates to a VIP antagonist antibody thatspecifically binds VIP or VIP receptor such as VPAC1, VPAC2, and PAC1.The disclosure should not be construed as being limited solely one typeof antibody. Rather, should be construed to include antibodies thatspecifically bind VIP, VIP preproproteins, VIP receptors, or portionsthereof One skilled in the art would appreciate, based upon thedisclosure provided herein, that the antibody can specifically bind withany portion of the polypeptide and the polypeptide can be used togenerate antibodies specific. However, in certain embodiments, thedisclosure is not limited to using the full-length polypeptidecorresponding to VIP.

The antibodies can be produced by immunizing an animal such as, but notlimited to, a rabbit or a mouse, with a protein, or a portion thereof,or by immunizing an animal using a protein comprising at least a portionof the polypeptide corresponding to VIP. One skilled in the art wouldappreciate, based upon the disclosure provided herein, smaller fragmentsof these proteins can also be used to produce antibodies thatspecifically bind the polypeptide.

Certain embodiments of the disclosure encompass polyclonal, monoclonal,synthetic antibodies, and the like. Moreover, the antibody can be usedto detect and or measure the amount of protein present in a biologicalsample using well-known methods such as, but not limited to, Westernblotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The antibody canalso be used to immunoprecipitate and/or immuno-affinity purify theircognate antigen using methods well-known in the art. Thus, byadministering the antibody to a cell or to the tissue of an animal, orto the animal itself, the interactions between VIP and its cognatereceptor are therefore inhibited.

In another embodiment, a monoclonal antibody is obtained from thenon-human animal, and then modified, e.g., humanized, deimmunized,chimeric, may be produced using recombinant DNA techniques known in theart. A variety of approaches for making chimeric antibodies have beendescribed. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567 and U.S. Pat. No.4,816,397. Humanized antibodies may also be produced, for example, usingtransgenic mice that express human heavy and light chain genes, but areincapable of expressing the endogenous mouse immunoglobulin heavy andlight chain genes. Winter describes an exemplary CDR-grafting methodthat may be used to prepare the humanized antibodies described herein(U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,539). All of the CDRs of a particular humanantibody may be replaced with at least a portion of a non-human CDR, oronly some of the CDRs may be replaced with non-human CDRs. It is onlynecessary to replace the number of CDRs required for binding of thehumanized antibody to a predetermined antigen.

Humanized antibodies or fragments thereof can be generated by replacingsequences of the Fv variable domain that are not directly involved inantigen binding with equivalent sequences from human Fv variabledomains. Exemplary methods for generating humanized antibodies orfragments thereof are provided by U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,089; U.S. Pat. No.5,693,761; U.S. Pat. No. 5,693,762; U.S. Pat. No. 5,859,205; and U.S.Pat. No. 6,407,213. Those methods include isolating, manipulating, andexpressing the nucleic acid sequences that encode all or part ofimmunoglobulin Fv variable domains from at least one of a heavy or lightchain. Such nucleic acids may be obtained from a hybridoma producing anantibody against a predetermined target, as described above, as well asfrom other sources. The recombinant DNA encoding the humanized antibodymolecule can then be cloned into an appropriate expression vector.

In certain embodiments, a humanized antibody is optimized by theintroduction of conservative substitutions, consensus sequencesubstitutions, germline substitutions and/or backmutations. An VIPantibody or antibody fragment thereof may also be modified by specificdeletion of human T cell epitopes or “deimmunization” by the methodsdisclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,125,689 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,264,806.Briefly, the heavy and light chain variable domains of an antibody canbe analyzed for peptides that bind to MHC Class II; these peptidesrepresent potential T-cell epitopes. For detection of potential T-cellepitopes, a computer modeling approach termed “peptide threading” can beapplied, and in addition a database of human MHC class II bindingpeptides can be searched for motifs present in the VH and VL sequences.These motifs bind to any of the 18 major MHC class II DR allotypes, andthus constitute potential T cell epitopes. Potential T-cell epitopesdetected can be eliminated by substituting small numbers of amino acidresidues in the variable domains, or preferably, by single amino acidsubstitutions. Typically, conservative substitutions are made. Often,but not exclusively, an amino acid common to a position in humangermline antibody sequences may be used. The V BASE directory provides acomprehensive directory of human immunoglobulin variable regionsequences. These sequences can be used as a source of human sequence,e.g., for framework regions and CDRs. Consensus human framework regionscan also be used, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,300,064.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

CMV belongs to the beta-herpesvirinae subfamily of Herpesviridae. Inhumans it is commonly known as HCMV or Human Herpesvirus 5 (HHV-5).Herpesviruses typically share a characteristic ability to remain latentwithin the body over long periods. HCMV infection may be lifethreatening for patients who are immunocompromised. In certainembodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treating a subjectdiagnosed with cytomegalovirus or preventing a cytomegalovirus infectionby administration of a VIP antagonist. In certain embodiments, thesubject is immunocompromised. In typical embodiments, the subject is anorgan transplant recipient, undergoing hemodialysis, diagnosed withcancer, receiving an immunosuppressive drug, and/or diagnosed with anHIV-infection. In certain embodiments, the subject may be diagnosed withcytomegalovirus hepatitis, the cause of fulminant liver failure,cytomegalovirus retinitis (inflammation of the retina, may be detectedby ophthalmoscopy), cytomegalovirus colitis (inflammation of the largebowel), cytomegalovirus pneumonitis, cytomegalovirus esophagitis,cytomegalovirus mononucleosis, polyradiculopathy, transverse myelitis,and subacute encephalitis. In certain embodiments, VIP antagonist isadministered in combination with an antiviral agent such asvalganciclovir or ganciclovir. In certain embodiments, the subjectundergoes regular serological monitoring.

HCMV infections of a pregnant subject may lead to congenitalabnormalities. Congenital HCMV infection occurs when the mother suffersa primary infection (or reactivation) during pregnancy. In certainembodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treating a pregnantsubject diagnosed with cytomegalovirus or preventing a cytomegalovirusinfection in a subject at risk for, attempting to become, or currentlypregnant by administering a VIP antagonist.

Subjects who have been infected with CMV typically develop antibodies tothe virus. A number of laboratory tests that detect these antibodies toCMV have been developed. The virus may be cultured from specimensobtained from urine, throat swabs, bronchial lavages and tissue samplesto detect active infection. One may monitor the viral load ofCMV-infected subjects using PCR. CMV pp65 antigenemia test is animmunoaffinity based assay for identifying the pp65 protein ofcytomegalovirus in peripheral blood leukocytes. CMV should be suspectedif a patient has symptoms of infectious mononucleosis but has negativetest results for mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr virus, or if they showsigns of hepatitis, but have negative test results for hepatitis A, B,and C. A virus culture can be performed at any time the subject issymptomatic. Laboratory testing for antibody to CMV can be performed todetermine if a subject has already had a CMV infection.

The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (or ELISA) is the most commonlyavailable serologic test for measuring antibody to CMV. The result canbe used to determine if acute infection, prior infection, or passivelyacquired maternal antibody in an infant is present. Other tests includevarious fluorescence assays, indirect hemagglutination, (PCR), and latexagglutination. An ELISA technique for CMV-specific IgM is available.

Combination Therapies

In some embodiments, the disclosure relates to treating a viralinfection by administering a VIP antagonist in combination with a secondantiviral agent. In further embodiments, VIP antagonist is administeredin combination with one or more of the following agents: abacavir,acyclovir, acyclovir, adefovir, amantadine, amprenavir, ampligen,arbidol, atazanavir, atripla, boceprevir, cidofovir, combivir,darunavir,delavirdine, didanosine, docosanol, edoxudine, efavirenz, emtricitabine,enfuvirtide, entecavir, famciclovir, fomivirsen, fosamprenavir,foscarnet, fosfonet, ganciclovir, ibacitabine, imunovir, idoxuridine,imiquimod, indinavir, inosine, interferon type III, interferon type II,interferon type I, lamivudine, lopinavir, loviride, maraviroc,moroxydine, methisazone, nelfinavir, nevirapine, nexavir, oseltamivir(Tamiflu), peginterferon alfa-2a, penciclovir, peramivir, pleconaril,podophyllotoxin , raltegravir, ribavirin, rimantadine, ritonavir,pyramidine, saquinavir, stavudine, tenofovir, tenofovir disoproxil,tipranavir, trifluridine, trizivir, tromantadine, truvada, valaciclovir(Valtrex), valganciclovir, vicriviroc, vidarabine, viramidinezalcitabine, zanamivir (Relenza), and/or zidovudine (AZT).

Antiviral agents include, but are not limited to, protease inhibitors(PIs), integrate inhibitors, entry inhibitors (fusion inhibitors),maturation inhibitors, and reverse transcriptase inhibitors(anti-retrovirals). Combinations of antiviral agents create multipleobstacles to viral replication, i.e., to keep the number of offspringlow and reduce the possibility of a superior mutation. If a mutationthat conveys resistance to one of the agents being taken arises, theother agents continue to suppress reproduction of that mutation. Forexample, a single anti-retroviral agent has not been demonstrated tosuppress an HIV infection for long. These agents are typically taken incombinations in order to have a lasting effect. As a result, thestandard of care is to use combinations of anti-retrovirals.

Reverse transcribing viruses replicate using reverse transcription,i.e., the formation of DNA from an RNA template. Retroviruses oftenintegrate the DNA produced by reverse transcription into the hostgenome. They are susceptible to antiviral drugs that inhibit the reversetranscriptase enzyme. In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates tomethods of treating viral infections by administering a VIP antagonistand a retroviral agent such as nucleoside and nucleotide reversetranscriptase inhibitors (NRTI) and/or a non-nucleoside reversetranscriptase inhibitors (NNRTI). Examples of nucleoside reversetranscriptase inhibitors include zidovudine, didanosine, zalcitabine,stavudine, lamivudine, abacavir, emtricitabine, entecavir, apricitabine.Examples of nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors includetenofovir and adefovir. Examples of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptaseinhibitors include efavirenz, nevirapine, delavirdine, and etravirine.

In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of treating aviral infection by administering a VIP antagonist in combination with anantiviral drug, e.g., 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine and a cytostatic agent, e.g.,hydroxyurea.

Human immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies are believed to have opsonizingand neutralizing effects against certain viruses. IgG is sometimesadministered to a subject diagnosed with immune thrombocytopenic purpura(ITP) secondary to a viral infection since certain viruses such as, HIVand hepatitis, cause ITP. In certain embodiments, the disclosure relatesto methods of treating or preventing viral infections comprisingadministering a VIP antagonist in combination with an immunoglobulin toa subject. IgG is typically manufactured from large pools of humanplasma that are screened to reduce the risk of undesired virustransmission. The Fc and Fab functions of the IgG molecule are usuallyretained. Therapeutic IgGs include Privigen, Hizentra, and WinRho.WinRho is an immunoglobulin (IgG) fraction containing antibodies to theRho(D) antigen (D antigen). The antibodies have been shown to increaseplatelet counts in Rho(D) positive subjects with ITP. The mechanism isthought to be due to the formation of anti-Rho(D) (anti-D)-coated RBCcomplexes resulting in Fc receptor blockade, thus sparingantibody-coated platelets.

In certain embodiments, it is contemplated that the vaccine may be usedto treat or prevent a bacterial infection in which case ananti-bacterial agent may be administered in combination with VIPantagonist and the vaccine. Exemplary antibiotics include, but are notlimited to, amikacin, gentamicin, kanamycin, neomycin, netilmicin,tobramycin, paromomycin, ansamycins, geldanamycin, herbimycin,carbacephem, loracarbef, carbapenems, ertapenem, doripenem,imipenem/cilastatin, meropenem, cefadroxil, cefazolin, cefalotin,cefalothin, cefalexin, cefaclor, cefamandole, cefoxitin, cefprozil,cefuroxime, cefixime, cefdinir, cefditoren, cefoperazone, cefotaxime,cefpodoxime, ceftazidime, ceftibuten, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone,cefepime, ceftobiprole, teicoplanin, vancomycin, telavancin,lincosamides, clindamycin, lincomycin, lipopeptide, daptomycin,azithromycin, clarithromycin, dirithromycin, erythromycin,roxithromycin, troleandomycin, telithromycin, spectinomycin,monobactams, aztreonam, nitrofurans, furazolidone, nitrofurantoin,amoxicillin, ampicillin, azlocillin, carbenicillin, cloxacillin,dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, mezlocillin, methicillin, nafcillin,pxacillin, penicillin G, penicillin V, piperacillin, temocillin,ticarcillin, penicillin combinations, amoxicillin/clavulanate,ampicillin/sulbactam, piperacillin/tazobactam, ticarcillin/clavulanate,bacitracin, colistin, polymyxin B, quinolones, ciprofloxacin, enoxacin,gatifloxacin, levofloxacin, lomefloxacin, moxifloxacin, nalidixic acid,norfloxacin, ofloxacin, trovafloxacin, grepafloxacin, sparfloxacin,temafloxacin, sulfonamides, mafenide, sulfonamidochrysoidine (archaic),sulfacetamide, sulfadiazine, silver sulfadiazine, sulfamethizole,sulfamethoxazole, sulfanilimide (archaic), sulfasalazine, sulfisoxazole,trimethoprim, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX),demeclocycline, doxycycline, minocycline, oxytetracycline, tetracycline,clofazimine, dapsone, capreomycin, cycloserine, ethambutol, ethionamide,isoniazid, pyrazinamide, rifampicin, rifabutin, rifapentine,streptomycin, arsphenamine, chloramphenicol, fosfomycin, fusidic acid,linezolid, metronidazole, mupirocin, platensimycin,quinupristin/dalfopristin, rifaximin, thiamphenicol, tigecycline, ortinidazole, or combinations thereof.

EXAMPLES Example 1 VIP-KO Mice Were Resistant to mCMV Infection

The hematological and immunological phenotypes of VIP-KO mice werecompared. No significant differences were found comparing blood fromnaïve WT and VIP-KO mice in the numbers of total leukocytes, CD4, CD8,αβ TCR T-cells, γδ T-cells, B-cells, myeloid leukocytes, and DCs inblood. VIP-KO and WT mice were infected with a non-lethal dose of mCMV(5×10⁴ pfu) and sacrificed 3, 10 and 17 days later, VIP-KO mice hadsignificantly less virus in their liver, a target for mCMV infection,with more rapid clearance of virus than mCMV infected WT mice (p<0.001;FIG. 1). To test whether VIP-KO mice had better survival following mCMVinfection, VIP-KO and WT mice were infected intraperitoneally witheither 1×10⁵ PFU /mouse (high-dose) or 5×10⁴ PFU/mouse (low dose) mCMV.All WT mice given high-dose mCMV died by day 10 post-infection comparedwith 65% survival of the VIP-KO mice (p<0.001, FIG. 2A). Followinglow-dose mCMV infection both WT and VIP-KO mice had transient lethargyand weight-loss, with recovery to baseline values by day 20post-infection, with 100% of WT mice and 92% of VIP-KO mice surviving today 100 post-infection (FIG. 2A, B). In a parallel experiment, serialmeasurements of CD4 and CD8 T-cells following mCMV infection showed thatVIP-KO mice had more CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells in their blood and spleencompared with WT mice (FIG. 2C-F).

Example 2 Innate and Adaptive Anti-Viral Responses were Enhanced in theAbsence of VIP

VIP-KO mice had significantly higher percentages (FIG. 3A) and absolutenumbers of antigen-specific mCMV peptide-MHC-class I tetramer⁺ CD8⁺T-cells in the blood (FIG. 3B) and spleen (FIG. 3C) following low-dosemCMV infection than WT mice. The highest frequency of mCMVpeptide-MHC-class I tetramer⁻ CD8⁻ T-cells in the blood was seen on day+10 post-infection with 9.1%±0.8% of blood CD8⁺ T-cells in VIP KO micevs. 4.8%±0.7% of blood CD8⁺ T-cells in WT mice (p<0.001; FIG. 3A). Sincelethality was 100% in WT mice receiving high-dose mCMV compared with 35%mortality among VIP-KO mice (p<0.001), a longitudinal comparison of thenumbers of antigen specific T-cells in WT vs. VIP KO mice could not beperformed, but analysis at day 3 showed that VIP-KO mice had greaternumbers of mCMV peptide-MHC-class I tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells(295/mL±40/mL) compared with WT mice (124/mL±38/mL, p<0.001) Enhancedinnate anti-viral immunity among VIP-KO mice was evidenced by higherlevels of NK-mediated cytotoxicity against YAC1 targets in VIP-KOsplenocytes harvested 3 days post-infection (FIG. 3D). UsingmCMV-peptide-pulsed and non-pulsed congenic splenocytes as targets in anin vivo cytotoxicity assay in immune mice (previously infected with lowdose mCMV), the specific lysis of mCMV-peptide-pulsed targets wassignificantly enhanced in VIP-KO mice compared with WT mice (FIGS. 4A,B). Significantly, VIP-KO mice had similar baseline-numbers but moreIFN-γ-expressing NK, NKT cells, and Th1/Tc1 polarized (IFN-γ⁺ andTNF-α⁺) T-cells on days 3-17 post-infection compared with WT mice.

Example 3 The Absence of VIP Expression in Donor Hematopoietic CellsEnhanced Anti-Viral Immunity in Radiation Hematopoietic Chimeras

Since VIP is expressed in multiple cell lineages, whether mice lackingVIP expression only in their hematopoietic cells had the same level ofenhanced anti-viral immunity was tested. VIP-KO mice were used as donorsof hematopoietic cells and created radiation chimeras with syngenic BMTin which recipients had >95% donor cell engraftment. The day 59 survivalof mice transplanted with VIP-KO 3×10³ FACS purified HSC, 5×10⁴ FACSpurified DC and 3×10⁵ MACS purified T-cells (75%±10%) was similar to thesurvival seen among mice transplanted with WT HSC, DC and T-cells(80%±9%). To explore the effect of VIP expression in hematopoietic cellson primary and secondary immune responses, VIP-KOOWT and WTOWT syngeneictransplant recipients were primed with PBS or the Lm-MCMV vaccine(containing mCMV immunodominant peptide M45 aa 985˜993) followed byinfection 21 days later with low dose mCMV (FIGS. 5A, B). Peripheralblood samples obtained prior to Lm-MCMV vaccination (day 59post-transplant), after vaccination, and following mCMV infection (day80 post-transplant) were analyzed for the numbers of mCMV peptide MHCclass I tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells. Non-immunized WT and VIP-KO chimericmice had minimal numbers of mCMV-peptide tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells in theirblood at baseline (FIG. 5A). Following primary mCMV infection,recipients engrafted with VIP-KO hematopoietic cells had significantlymore mCMV-peptide tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells in their blood compared with WTmice (FIG. 5A). Vaccination with Lm-MCMV led to a larger increase inblood mCMV tetramer⁺ T-cells in the VIP-KOOWT chimeras compared withWTOWT chimeras (FIG. 5B) indicating that mCMV peptide presentation alonein VIP-KO mice (in the absence of viral infection) was sufficient toresult in enhanced expansion of antigen-specific T-cells. Subsequentinfection of the Lm-MCMV vaccinated mice with low dose mCMV led to anaccelerated anamnestic response in VIP-KO⋄WT chimeras compared with miceengrafted with WT BM (FIG. 5B).

Since both T-cells and accessory cells can secrete VIP, the role of VIPsynthesis by different immune cell subsets was explored by creatingradiation chimeras engrafted with the combination of donor DC & HSC fromVIP-KO mice and donor T-cells from WT mice. Mice transplanted with theheterogeneous combination of VIP-KO HSC & DC and WT T-cells did not showthe enhanced immune responses seen in mice engrafted with thehomogeneous combination of VIP-KO HSC, DC and T-cells (FIG. 5B)indicating that VIP production by donor T-cells was sufficient toattenuate anti-viral cellular immunity

Example 4 Absence of VIP Augmented Anti-Viral CD8⁺ T-Cell Proliferationand Th1/Tc1 Polarization In Vitro

To study the effect of VIP on anti-viral immunity in vitro, cultures ofT-cells and mCMV-peptide-pulsed DC for MCMV-peptide MHC II-tetramer⁺T-cells and for Th1 & Th2 cytokines were analyzed. DC and T-cells werepurified from WT or VIP-KO mice, the DC were pulsed with mCMV peptide,and then mixed with T-cells. The numbers of MCMV-peptide MHCII-tetramer⁺ T-cells generated over 10 days of culture were measured byflow cytometry. Significantly greater numbers of antigen-specificMCMV-peptide MHC II-tetramer⁺ T-cells were detected after 3 days incultures of T-cells with DC that had been isolated from mCMV-immuneVIP-KO mice compared with similar cells isolated from mCMV-immune WTmice (FIG. 6A). To rule out an effect of VIP synthesized bynon-hematopoietic cells on in vitro immune responses to mCMV peptides,donor-derived T-cells and DC were recovered from syngeneic transplantsrecipients of VIP-KO⋄WT or WT⋄WT radiation chimeras. Homogeneouscultures of DC and T-cells recovered from VIP-KO⋄WT radiation chimeragenerated more mCMV-peptide-MHC I tetramer⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells than culturesof DC and T-cells from WTOWT radiation chimeras (FIG. 6B), indicatingthe absence of VIP synthesis by hematopoietic cells in radiationchimeras programmed T-cells and DC towards enhanced cellular immuneresponses. Supernatants from cultures of T-cells and mCMV-peptide-pulsedDC from WT mice had higher levels of IL-10, and lower levels of IFN-γcompared with supernatants from cultures of T-cells andmCMV-peptide-pulsed DC from VIP-KO mice (FIGS. 6C, D). To determinewhether synthesis of VIP by T-cells was sufficient to down-regulateimmune responses to mCMV, WT T-cells and VIP-KO DC isolated fromradiation chimeras originally transplanted with the heterogeneouscombination of WT T-cells plus VIP-KO DC and VIP-KO HSC were cultured.In contrast to the larger numbers of mCMV-peptide-MHC-tetramer⁺ T-cellsseen in homogeneous cultures of T-cells and DC from VIP-KO mice,heterogeneous cultures of WT T-cells plus VIP-KO DC generated fewermCMV-peptide MHC class I-tetramer⁺ T-cells, similar to cultures of WTT-cells and WT DC, indicating that VIP synthesis by T-cells acts as adominant negative regulatory mechanism in anti-viral cellular immunityin vitro (FIG. 6B).

Example 5 VIP-KO Mice had Higher Levels of Co-Stimulatory Molecule andMHC Class II Expression on DC and Less PD-1/PD-L1 Expression Comparedwith WT Mice Following mCMV Infection

To explore the mechanism by which the absence of VIP enhanced anti-viralimmunity, the expression of co-stimulatory molecules and PD-1/PD-L1expression in WT and VIP-KO mice following mCMV infection was studied.Prior to mCMV infection, baseline levels of MHC class II, CD80, andPD-L1 expression on DCs, and PD-1 expression on CD4 and CD8 T-cells weresimilar comparing WT with VIP-KO mice (FIG. 7). VIP-KO mice had a markedup-regulation of CD80 and MHC class II expression on cDC and pDC 3 daysafter mCMV infection compared with the corresponding DC subsets frommCMV-infected WT mice. Of note, the absence of VIP expression had asignificant impact on the up-regulation of co-inhibitory molecules andligands that normally follows mCMV infection: PD-L1 expression wasup-regulated 3 days after mCMV infection in DC from WT but not VIP-KOmice, while WT CD8⁺ T-cells showed a striking up-regulation of PD-1expression on day 10 after mCMV infection that was not seen in CD8⁺T-cells from VIP-KO mice (FIG. 7).

Methods Mice

B6 strain (H-2Kb, CD45.2, CD90.2) vasoactive intestinal peptide/peptidehistidine isoleucine (VIP/PHI) knockout (KO) mice (VIP-KO) are disclosedin Li et al., J Immunol 183:7799-7809. Both male and female VIP KO micewere used in experiments, using syngenic siblings as wild-type (WT)controls. Congenic strains of B6 mice were purchased from JacksonLaboratory (Bar Harbor, Maine) (H-2Kb, CD45.1, CD90.2) or were bred atthe Emory University Animal Care Facility (Atlanta, Ga.) (H-2Kb,CD45.1/CD45.2). All mice were 8-10 weeks old. Procedures conformed tothe Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, and were approvedby the Emory University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee(IACUC). According to IACUC guidelines, any mouse that lost 25%bodyweight was euthanized and recorded as dying on the following day forstatistical analysis.

Donor Cell Preparation for Transplantation

Bone marrow transplantation was performed to create chimeric mice withhematopoietic cells from VIP-KO donors or WT donors (control). Femora,tibia, and spleens were obtained from VIP-KO or WT mice. Bone marrowcells were harvested by flushing the specimens with sterile RPMI-1640containing 1% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum (RPMI/FCS). T-cells werepurified from splenocytes by negative selection using a cocktail ofbiotinylated non-T-cell antibodies (anti-CD11b, B220, DX5, and Ter119),streptavidin microbeads and immuno-magnetic separation (MACS, MiltenyiBiotech, Auburn, Calif.). The average purity of CD3⁺ T-cells was 95%.Lineage- (CD3, CD4, CD8, Gr-1, CD11b, I-Ab, DX5, B220, TER119 and CD19)c-kit⁺ sca-1⁺ hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and lineage- (CD3, DX5,IgM, TER119 and CD19) CD11c⁺ DC from donor BM were purified using aBecton Dickinson FACS Aria cell sorter. Purity of FACS-purified HSC andDC averaged 93% and 97%, respectively.

Radiation Chimeras and Stem Cell Transplantation.

On day -1, 8-10 week old male B6 CD45.1 congenic mice were irradiatedwith two fractions of 5.5 Gy for a total of 11 Gy (40). On day 0,irradiated mice received 5×10⁶ TCD-BM cells plus 3×10⁵ MACS purifiedsplenic T-cells via tail vein injection. Some experiments used analternate approach, transplanting a combination of 5×10³ HSC, 5×10⁴ DC,plus 3×10⁵ T-cells. Mice were monitored for signs of severe infectionincluding fur texture, posture, activity, skin integrity, and weightloss. Each transplant group was followed for at least 100 days. Donorcell chimerism in peripheral blood was determined 2 months aftertransplantation, and was typically ≧95%. Chimeric mice were then used invaccination and mCMV infection studies.

Virus and Immunization.

The Smith strain of mCMV passaged in vivo in salivary glands and frozenin aliquots in liquid nitrogen. WT and VIP-KO mice, as well as chimericmice with hematopoietic cells from WT and VIP-KO donors, were giveneither 5×10⁴ (LD10; low dose) or 1×10⁵ (LD 50; high dose) plaque-formingunit (PFU) mCMV by intraperitoneal injection and then monitored forsigns of illness including hunched posture, decreased activity, andweight loss. Mice were vaccinated intraperitoneally with 1×10⁶colony-forming unit (CFU) Lm-MCMV, a Listeria monocytogenes which hasbeen rendered non-pathogenic by knock-out of bacterial genes associatedwith virulence and engineered to express the mCMV H-2Db immuno-dominantpeptide M45 aa-985˜993-HGIRNASFI (SEQ ID NO: 1). The vaccine wasprepared and supplied by Cerus Corporation (Concord, Calif.).

Analysis of Peripheral Blood and Spleen Samples.

Blood and spleen samples were obtained on 3, 7, 10, 14, 17 and 21 daysafter vaccination or following mCMV infection. Leukocytes, red bloodcells and platelets were counted using a Beckman Coulter automatedcounter. Blood and spleen samples were depleted of red blood cells byammonium chloride lysis and washed twice. NK, NK-T, and T-cell subsetswere enumerated using CD3 PE/PE-Cy7/FITC, CD4 PE-Alexa610/PE-Alexa700,CD8 PE-Cy7/Per-CP, CD62L FITC/APC, CD25 APC-Cy7, CD44 PE-Cy5, CD69PE-Cy7, PD-1 PE, and NK1.1 PE (Pharmingen). Cells were stained withmonoclonal antibodies specific for congenic markers CD45.2, CD45.1,CD90.1 and CD90.2 to determine donor chimerism. APC labeled mCMV M45aa-985˜993-peptide-HGIRNASFI-H-2Db tetramer was obtained from the EmoryTetramer Core Facility. All samples were analyzed on a FACS Canto(Beckon Dickinson, San Jose, Calif.) and list mode files were analyzedusing FlowJo software (Tree Star, Inc. 2007). Samples for flowcytometric analysis of mCMV-peptide- MHC-I tetramer⁺ T-cells (tetramer⁺T-cells) were gated for lymphocytes in the area of FSC and SSC, andsetting a gate for tetramer⁺ T-cells such that 0.01% of control(non-immune) CD8⁺ T-cells were positive. Flow cytometric analyses of theTreg-associated molecule PD-1, the co-stimulatory molecule ICOS, theadhesion molecule CD62L, activation markers CD25 and CD69, intracellularcytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL4 and IL-10), and DC markers (I-Ab, CD80, andPD-L1) were analyzed.

In Vivo Killing Assay.

Naive splenocytes were harvested from CD45.1⁺/CD45.2⁺ heterozygousC57BL/6 mice and pulsed with 3 μM mCMV M45 aa-985˜993-HGIRNASFI (SEQ IDNO: 1) peptide in RPMI 1640 containing 3% FBS for 90 min at 37° C., andwashed three times with ice-cold media. MCMV peptide-pulsed targetsplenocytes and non-pulsed splenocytes from CD45.1⁺ B6 congenic micewere mixed together in equal parts 40×10⁶ total target cells per mousewere injected i.v. into CD45.2⁺ VIP-KO or WT C57BL/6 mice that had beeninfected 9 days earlier with low dose (LD10) mCMV, or injected intonon-infected WT control mice Sixteen hours following injection of targetcells, recipients were sacrificed, splenocytes harvested, and thenumbers of mCMV peptide-pulsed CD45.1⁺/CD45.2⁻ and non-pulsed CD45.1⁺target cells quantified by FACS analysis Immune mediated killing of mCMVpeptide pulsed targets was calculated by first dividing the percentageof peptide-pulsed or non-pulsed targets recovered from the spleen ofmCMV-immune mice with the mean percentage of the correspondingpopulation of peptide-pulsed or non-pulsed targets from non-immune mice(ratio of immune killing). The specific anti-viral in vivo lyticactivity for individual mice were calculated by the formula: (1−(ratioof immune killing mCMV-peptide pulsed-target cells/ ratio of immunekilling non- pulsed target cells))×100.

In Vitro Measurements of Immune Responses to mCMV Peptide.

WT mice, VIP-KO mice, and mice engrafted with either WT or VIP-KO donorcells were infected with low dose mCMV and splenocytes were harvested 15days later. Splenic DC and T-cells were purified by FACS and MACS,respectively. DC were plated at 2×10⁵ cells/mL in 12-well plates andcentrifuged (300×g for 30 min) with 3 μM mCMV peptide. Aftercentrifugation, DC were washed 3 times with PBS, resuspended in completemedium, and incubated with 2×10⁶ T-cells at 37° C. for 3 or 7 days.Cells were treated with Golgi Stop (Pharmingen, San Jose, Calif.) duringthe last 6 hours of culture. Cells were then harvested from cultureplates and stained with fluorescently-labeled antibodies against DC andT-cell lineage markers, permeabilized, and stained with antibodiesagainst IL-10 and IFN-γ, and analyzed by flow cytometry, usingisotype-matched control antibodies to set the gates for distinguishingpositive intracellular staining Harvested culture media was stored at−20° C. until use for cytokine analysis by ELISA (OptEIA ELISA sets forIL-10 and IFN-γ; BD Biosciences). ELISA plates were read using aSpectraMax 340PC spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale,Calif.).

NK Cell Lytic Activity.

YAC-1 cells, a sensitive target for NK cells, were labeled with 37 MBqof Na51CrO4 at 37° C. for 90 min and washed twice with warm RPMI 1640medium. The labeled target cells (1×10⁴) were co-cultured with effectorsplenocytes (containing NK cells) at various ratios of effectors:targets (100:1, 50:1, and 25:1) in a final volume of 0.2 ml fresh mediumin 96-well round bottom microplates. The plates were incubated for 4hours at 37° C. with 5% CO₂. The amount of ⁵¹Cr released in 0.1 mlsupernatant was measured by a well-type gamma counter (Beta LiquidScintillation Counter, EG&G Wallac, Perkin-Elmer, Ontario, Canada).Specific cytotoxicity was calculated as: % ⁵¹Cr release=100×(cpmexperimental−cpm spontaneous release)/(cpm maximum release−cpmspontaneous release).

Determination of Liver Viral Load.

Livers were collected from CMV-infected recipients, homogenized, andcentrifuged. Serially diluted supernatants were added to 3T3 confluentmonolayers in 24-well tissue culture plates and incubated for 90 minutesat 37° C. and 5% CO₂, then over layered with 1 mL 2.5% methylcellulosein DMEM and returned to the incubator. After 4 days, the methylcellulosewas removed and the 3T3 confluent monolayers were stained with methyleneblue. MCMV plaques were directly counted under a light microscope(Nikon, Melville, N.Y.) PFUs were calculated.

What is claimed:
 1. A method of treating or preventing a viral infectioncomprising administering a VIP antagonist to a subject in need thereof.2. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is immune compromised. 3.The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a transplant recipient. 4.The method of claim 1, wherein the viral infection is a virus selectedfrom the group consisting of an influenza A virus including subtypeH1N1, influenza B virus, influenza C virus, rotavirus A, rotavirus B,rotavirus C, rotavirus D, rotavirus E, SARS coronavirus, humanadenovirus types (HAdV-1 to 55), human papillomavirus (HPV) Types 16,18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, parvovirus B19, molluscumcontagiosum virus, JC virus (JCV), BK virus, Merkel cell polyomavirus,coxsackie A virus, norovirus, Rubella virus, lymphocyticchoriomeningitis virus (LCMV), yellow fever virus, measles virus, mumpsvirus, respiratory syncytial virus, rinderpest virus, Californiaencephalitis virus, hantavirus, rabies virus, ebola virus, marburgvirus, herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2),varicella zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus(CMV), herpes lymphotropic virus, roseolovirus, Kaposi'ssarcoma-associated herpesvirus, hepatitis A (HAV), hepatitis B (HBV),hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis D (HDV), hepatitis E (HEV), humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV), The Human T-lymphotropic virus Type I(HTLV-1), Friend spleen focus-forming virus (SFFV), and XenotropicMuLV-Related Virus (XMRV).
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the viralinfection is a herpes virus.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the VIPantagonist is a peptide.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the VIPantagonist is selected from the group consisting of VIP(6-28);VIP(10-28);[Lys(1), Pro(2,5), Arg(3,4), Tyr(6)]-VIP; [D-p-Cl-Phe(6),Leu(17)]-VIP; [Acetyl-His(1), D-Phe(2), Lys(15), Arg(16),Leu(27)]-VIP(1-7)/GRF(8-27)-NH2; [Myristoyl-His(1),Lys(12,27,28),Gly(29,30), Thr(31)]-VIP-NH2; [Acetyl-His(1), D-Phe(2), Lys(15),Arg(16), Leu(17)]-VIP; neurotensin(6-11)VIP(7-28); [Acetyl-His(1),D-Phe(2), Lys(15), Leu(17)]VIP(3-7)/GRF(8-27); [Acetyl-His(1), D-Phe(2),Lys(15), Arg(16)]VIP(3-7)/GRF(8-27)-NH2; [Acetyl-Tyr(1),D-Phe(2)]-GRF(1-29)-NH2; [N-stearyl, norleucine17] VlPhybrid;[D-Phe2]VIP; PACAP(6-27); and PACAP(6-38).
 8. The method of claim 1,wherein the VIP antagonist is a VIP antibody or antibody fragment to VIPor a VIP receptor.
 9. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a VIPantibody or antibody fragment and a pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient.
 10. A method of preventing an infection comprisingadministering a VIP antagonist in combination with a vaccine.
 11. Themethod of claim 10, wherein the vaccine comprises a polypeptide, sugar,polysaccharide, or nucleic acid.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein thenucleic acid is a replication competent attenuated virus, a killed orinactivated virus, a killed or live prokaryotic cell, a killed or liveeukaryotic cell.
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the vaccine isselected from the group of vaccines consisting of herpes zoster vaccine,smallpox vaccine, polio vaccine, pertussis vaccine, influenza vaccine,diphtheria vaccine, tetanus vaccine, meningococcus vaccine, influenza Avaccine including subtype H1N1 vaccine, influenza B vaccine, influenza Cvaccine, rotavirus A vaccine, rotavirus B vaccine, rotavirus C vaccine,rotavirus D vaccine, rotavirus E vaccine, SARS coronavirus vaccine,human adenovirus types (HAdV-1 to 55) vaccine, human papillomavirus(HPV) vaccine, parvovirus B19 vaccine, molluscum contagiosum vaccine, JCvaccine, BK vaccine, Merkel cell polyomavirus vaccine, coxsackie Avaccine, norovirus vaccine, Rubella vaccine, lymphocyticchoriomeningitis vaccine, yellow fever vaccine, measles vaccine, mumpsvaccine, respiratory syncytial vaccine, rinderpest vaccine, Californiaencephalitis vaccine, hantavirus vaccine, rabies vaccine, ebola vaccine,marburg vaccine, herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) vaccine, herpes simplexvirus-2 (HSV-2) vaccine, varicella zoster vaccine, Epstein-Barr virus(EBV) vaccine, cytomegalovirus (CMV) vaccine, herpes lymphotropicvaccine, roseolovirus vaccine, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirusvaccine, hepatitis A (HAV) vaccine, hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine, hepatitisC (HCV) vaccine, hepatitis D (HDV) vaccine, hepatitis E (HEV) vaccine,human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine, The Human T-lymphotropicvirus Type I (HTLV-1) vaccine, Friend spleen focus-forming virus (SFFV)vaccine, and Xenotropic MuLV-Related Virus (XMRV) vaccine.
 14. A methodof treating a subject diagnosed with cancer comprising administering acell in combination with a VIP antagonist to a subject in need thereof.15. The method of claim 14, wherein the subject is diagnosed withleukemia or lymphoma.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the cell is ablood cell, bone marrow cell, leukocyte, T-cell, natural killer cell, ahematopoietic stem cell, a G-CSF mobilized or non-mobilized bloodmononuclear cell.
 17. The method of claim 14, wherein the cell is an HLAmatched or mis-matched allogeneic cell, syngeneic cell, or an autologouscell.